Empowering Mothers in the Workforce: a Study of Educational Programs for Career Transitions in Hungary

Abstract

This mixed-methods study investigates the educational needs and preferences of mothers with young children in Hungary who are considering career transitions. Through in-depth interviews and a survey, we explore the factors influencing their educational choices, preferred learning formats, childcare needs, and financial considerations. The qualitative findings highlight the importance of flexibility, online learning options, childcare support, practical skills development, and financial assistance. The quantitative analysis reveals correlations between preferences for specific learning formats, childcare needs, and financial considerations, as well as the influence of demographic factors on educational choices. The study provides valuable insights for designing effective educational programs that cater to the unique needs of mothers with young children, empowering them to successfully navigate career transitions and achieve their professional goals.
Keywords: Mothers in workforce, career transition, adult learning, work-life balance, skills development.
Jel code: J24

1. Introduction

In today’s rapidly evolving economic landscape, career transitions have become increasingly common, particularly among mothers with young children who seek to re-enter the workforce or pursue new career paths (Augustine, 2014). In Hungary, as in many other countries, these demographic face unique challenges in balancing childcare responsibilities with educational and professional aspirations. Understanding the specific needs and preferences of the targeted audience is crucial for developing effective educational programs (Hajeer et al., 2023; Hajeer, 2024) that facilitate successful career transitions. This study aims to explore the educational needs and preferences of mothers with young children in Hungary who are considering career changes. By employing a mixed-methods approach, the current investigation seek to gain a comprehensive understanding of the factors that influence their educational choices and the types of programs that best support their career goals. The research addresses key questions such as: What are the preferred learning formats for mothers with young children? What types of childcare support are most beneficial? What are the financial considerations that impact their educational decisions?
To answer these questions, we will conduct in-depth interviews with a diverse group of mothers to gather qualitative data on their experiences and perspectives. Additionally, we will administer a survey to a larger sample of mothers to collect quantitative data on their educational preferences, demographics, and childcare needs. By integrating both qualitative and quantitative methods, we aim to provide a nuanced and comprehensive understanding of the educational landscape for mothers in Hungary. The findings of this study will have significant implications for educational institutions, policymakers, and organizations that support women’s career development. By identifying the specific needs and preferences of mothers with young children, we can inform the design and implementation of educational programs that are tailored to their unique circumstances. This, in turn, can empower mothers to successfully navigate career transitions, enhance their employability, and contribute to the workforce while balancing their family responsibilities. Ultimately, this research seeks to contribute to a more inclusive and supportive educational environment for mothers in Hungary, fostering their personal and professional growth.

2. Theoretical Background

The transition from motherhood back into the workforce or further education presents a unique set of challenges and opportunities for women, particularly those with young children. This literature review aims to examine the existing research on the educational needs and preferences of mothers in Hungary who are considering career transitions. By understanding the specific barriers these women face and the types of support they require, policymakers and educational institutions can develop more effective programs to facilitate their successful reintegration into the workforce or further education. This review will delve into the theoretical frameworks that underpin the study of career transitions and adult learning, explore the barriers faced by mothers in pursuing education and career advancement, and examine their educational needs and preferences. Additionally, it will review interventions designed to support mothers’ career transitions and identify gaps in the existing literature to guide future research.

2.1 Theoretical Frameworks

Several theoretical frameworks can be applied to understand the experiences of mothers with young children seeking to re-enter the workforce or change careers. Human capital theory for, for example, emphasizes the importance of education and training in enhancing individuals’ skills and knowledge, thereby increasing their productivity and earning potential (Becker, 1993). In the context of mothers, investing in education and training can be seen as a way to update their skills, acquire new knowledge, and improve their employability after a career break. Another theory would be the Social learning theory which highlights the role of social interactions and observational learning in shaping individuals’ behavior and career choices (Bandura, 1977). For mothers, social networks and role models can provide valuable information and support in navigating career transitions. Additionally, observing other mothers successfully balancing work and family responsibilities can enhance their self-efficacy and motivation to pursue their career goals.

Yet, Career construction theory posits that individuals actively construct their careers through a series of choices and actions, influenced by their personal characteristics, values, and experiences (Savickas, 2005). For mothers, career construction may involve re-evaluating their career goals and priorities in light of their parenting responsibilities, seeking out flexible work arrangements, and developing strategies to balance work and family life.The concept of the „motherhood penalty” is central to understanding the challenges faced by mothers in the workplace. This penalty refers to the negative impact of motherhood on women’s career progression, including lower wages, reduced opportunities for advancement, and negative stereotypes about their competence and commitment (Correll, Bernard, & Paik, 2007). The motherhood penalty is often attributed to „role incongruity,” which suggests that the traditional expectations associated with motherhood conflict with the perceived requirements of leadership and career success (Eagly & Karau, 2002). Mothers may be perceived as less dedicated to their careers or less capable of handling demanding roles due to their caregiving responsibilities.

2.2 Barriers to Education and Career Advancements

Mothers with young children encounter numerous obstacles in their pursuit of education and career advancement. One significant barrier is the lack of affordable and accessible childcare. High childcare costs and limited availability of quality childcare options can deter mothers from engaging in educational programs or returning to work (Augustine, 2014). This constraint disproportionately affects low-income mothers who may not have the financial means to afford private childcare or access to subsidized programs. Another major obstacle is the time constraints imposed by caregiving responsibilities. Mothers often juggle multiple roles, including childcare, household chores, and part-time or full-time employment (Dench & Bellis, 2007). This leaves them with limited time for education or professional development. Moreover, the inflexible schedules of many educational programs and workplaces exacerbate this challenge, making it difficult for mothers to balance their caregiving responsibilities with their career aspirations.

Financial constraints also pose a significant barrier for mothers seeking education or career advancement. The cost of education, including tuition fees, textbooks, and transportation, can be prohibitive for many mothers, especially those who are single parents or have low incomes (Budig et al, 2012). Furthermore, returning to work after a career break may involve a temporary decrease in household income, making it difficult to invest in education or training.
In addition to external barriers, mothers may also face internal challenges such as lack of confidence and self-efficacy. Prolonged absence from the workforce or limited professional experience can erode mothers’ confidence in their abilities. They may doubt their skills, knowledge, or ability to succeed in a new career path. Moreover, the constant juggling of multiple roles can lead to exhaustion and burnout, further undermining their confidence and motivation. Finally, negative stereotypes and discrimination in the workplace can hinder mothers’ career progression. Employers may perceive mothers as less committed or less competent due to their caregiving responsibilities (Torres et al., 2024). This bias can result in fewer opportunities for advancement, lower salaries, and limited access to training and development programs. Such discriminatory practices not only harm individual mothers but also have broader economic and social implications, as they perpetuate gender inequality in the workforce and hinder overall economic growth. These barriers have a significant impact on mothers’ educational attainment, employment status, and career progression. They may be less likely to complete higher education, secure high-paying jobs, or advance in their careers compared to women without children (Budig & England, 2001). Addressing these barriers is crucial for creating a more equitable and inclusive society where mothers have equal opportunities to pursue their educational and career goals.

2.3 Educational Needs and Preferences of Mothers

The educational needs and preferences of mothers with young children are multifaceted and influenced by various factors. Research indicates a strong preference for flexible learning options that accommodate their caregiving responsibilities. This includes online courses, part-time programs, and flexible scheduling options that allow mothers to balance their studies with childcare and other commitments (Augustine, 2014; Dench & Bellis, 2007). The COVID-19 pandemic further highlighted the importance of online learning as a viable option for mothers who faced increased childcare demands and limited mobility (Staniscuaski et al., 2021). In addition to flexibility, mothers value practical and job-related skills training that can enhance their employability and facilitate their re-entry into the workforce (Dench & Bellis, 2007). Programs that offer certifications or qualifications in high-demand fields, such as healthcare, education, or technology, can be particularly appealing. Moreover, skills development workshops that focus on resume building, interview skills, and job search strategies can equip mothers with the tools they need to navigate the job market successfully.
Childcare support and family-friendly policies are also crucial for mothers’ educational and career advancement. On-site childcare facilities, flexible work arrangements, and parental leave policies can alleviate the burden of childcare and enable mothers to participate fully in educational programs or pursue their careers (Torres et al., 2024). The availability of financial aid, scholarships, and grants can also play a significant role in facilitating access to education for mothers who face financial constraints (Budig et al, 2012). These financial resources can help cover tuition fees, childcare expenses, and other costs associated with education and training. Furthermore, mentoring and support services can be instrumental in empowering mothers and boosting their confidence in their abilities. Mentorship programs can provide guidance, advice, and emotional support, while networking opportunities can help mothers connect with potential employers and expand their professional circles. Support groups specifically for mothers can also offer a safe space for sharing experiences, challenges, and successes, fostering a sense of community and belonging.
The body of research on the educational needs and preferences of mothers with young children reveals a complex landscape shaped by various barriers and opportunities. The „motherhood penalty” and „role incongruity” significantly hinder mothers’ career advancement, necessitating interventions that address both individual needs and systemic biases (Correll et al., 2007; Eagly & Karau, 2002). Mothers often grapple with a lack of affordable childcare, time constraints, financial limitations, and a lack of confidence (Augustine, 2014; Dench & Bellis, 2007). However, they express a clear preference for flexible learning formats, practical skills training, childcare support, financial assistance, and mentoring services. The current research aims to address these issues by investigating the educational needs and preferences of Hungarian mothers with young children who are considering career transitions. By understanding the specific context and challenges faced by mothers in Hungary, this study will contribute to the development of tailored educational programs that facilitate their successful reintegration into the workforce or pursuit of further education. The findings of this research will not only empower individual mothers but also inform policy decisions and institutional practices that promote gender equality and support working mothers in their career aspirations.

3. Methods

This study employed a mixed-methods approach to explore the characteristics and effectiveness of educational programs for career transitions among mothers with young children in Hungary. The research integrated both qualitative and quantitative methods to gather comprehensive insights. The study focused on mothers with young children considering career changes. Participants included mothers from diverse backgrounds, recruited through community groups and social media platforms. Table 1 includes info about the participants of the interview study.

3.1 Data Collection and Analysis

The qualitative part of the study included in-depth interviews with four participants to understand their experiences and preferences regarding educational programs. Three interviews were conducted in person and one online, with each session recorded and transcribed for analysis. For the data analysis, a thematic analysis was performed on the interview transcripts to identify the emerging themes (Hajeer & Toptsi, 2022). Two coders independently coded the data to ensure consistency and reliability. Themes and sub-themes were identified to understand the key characteristics and preferences of the participants. Interviews were scheduled at the convenience of participants, either in person or online. Recordings were transcribed, and thematic analysis was conducted to extract key insights.
The quantitative part of the study included a survey. An online questionnaire was distributed to a larger sample of 51 participants to collect quantitative data on their educational preferences and needs. The survey included Likert-scale questions and multiple-choice items. As for the data analysis, the Quantitative data was analyzed using statistical software (JASP). Pearson correlation and cross-tabulation analyses were conducted to identify relationships between variables such as educational preferences, demographics, and the number of children. The survey was disseminated through google forms platform, ensuring anonymity and confidentiality of responses. Data were collected over a four-week period.

3.2 Instruments

Regarding the interview guide, a semi-structured interview guide was developed based on literature and preliminary research findings. The guide included open-ended questions to explore participants’ experiences with educational programs. Participants were provided with information about the study and gave their informed consent before participation.
Concerning the Questionnaire, it was designed to capture detailed information on participants’ educational backgrounds, preferences for program formats, and support needs. It included questions on various educational formats, childcare needs, and financial support preferences. Data were anonymized to protect participants’ identities, and secure storage methods were used to safeguard the collected data.

4. Results and Discussion

4.1 The Interview Study

The qualitative data from the in-depth interviews revealed several key themes and insights into the educational preferences and challenges faced by mothers with young children. The following subsections include more info regarding the emerging themes.
3.1.1 Preferred Learning Formats.
This theme includes entails four types of learning format namely, online learning, in-person learning, blended learning and MOOCs. First, many participants preferred online learning due to its flexibility, which allows them to balance childcare and study. This included both live online lectures and pre-recorded materials. This preference for online learning reflects the need to balance educational pursuits with childcare responsibilities. Second, despite the convenience of online formats, some participants valued the depth of interaction and networking opportunities provided by in-person classes. This highlights the importance of social interaction and networking for some mothers, even as they juggle childcare duties.
Third, some participants expressed a preference for a blended learning approach that combines the flexibility of online learning with the benefits of in-person interaction. This suggests that a hybrid model could cater to a wider range of preferences and needs. Finally, participants emphasized the importance of being able to review recorded course materials, either through recorded lectures or comprehensive notes, to accommodate their busy schedules and potential interruptions. For example, Anna mentioned that „Having recorded lectures is a lifesaver. I can study when my child is asleep.”. This highlights the need for course materials that are easily accessible and can be revisited as needed. This description meets the Massive Open Online Courses type of online courses as described by Hajeer (2020, 2023).

4.1.2 Childcare Support:

Participants highlighted the importance of accessible childcare during study hours. For instance, Leila said „A course that provides on-site childcare would be ideal for me.” Some suggested that institutions could offer on-site childcare or collaborate with local daycare providers. This finding underscores the significance of childcare as a barrier to education for mothers and suggests potential solutions for educational institutions. The participants highlighted the need for courses scheduled at times that accommodate childcare responsibilities, such as evenings or weekends, was a recurring theme. This highlights the need for flexibility in scheduling to accommodate the diverse needs of mothers with young children.
Childcare emerged as a critical factor influencing participation in educational programs. Institutions should consider providing on-site childcare or partnering with local childcare providers to alleviate this barrier. Flexible scheduling that accommodates the varied routines of mothers is also essential.
1.1.3 Course Content and Structure:
Mothers expressed a preference for courses that offer practical skills and real-world applications, which can be directly applied to job roles. For instance, Sandra said that „I need a program that offers practical skills I can use immediately at work.”. This preference aligns with the desire for education that translates directly into career opportunities and advancement. Furthermore, there was a strong preference for courses that provide recognized qualifications, whether it be a diploma, certification, or other formal credentials. This finding emphasizes the importance of credentials in enhancing employability and career prospects. Finally, participants expressed a desire for personalized support, such as mentoring or tutoring, to help them navigate their educational journey. This suggests that support services can play a crucial role in the success of mothers returning to education.
Courses should focus on practical applications and offer credentials that enhance employability. This aligns with participants’ needs for education that can be directly translated into job skills and career advancement. Additionally, incorporating mentoring and support services can help mothers navigate the challenges of returning to education.
4.1.4 Financial Considerations:
Financial constraints were a significant concern. To illustrate, Ágota mentioned that „Cost is a big factor. Payment in installments would make it more manageable”. Many mothers preferred programs that offer flexible payment plans or financial assistance. This highlights the financial barriers that many mothers face when considering further education. Moreover, participants expressed interest in scholarships or grants that could help offset the cost of education. This suggests that financial aid programs could significantly increase access to education for mothers.
Financial barriers can significantly impact participation rates. Educational programs should offer flexible payment options, such as installment plans, and actively seek to provide financial aid or scholarships to support mothers in their educational endeavors.
4.1.5 Additional Considerations:
Location and Accessibility: For in-person classes, proximity to home was important, with participants preferring locations within a reasonable commuting distance. This underscores the importance of considering logistical factors when designing educational programs for mothers.
Community and Networking: Some participants expressed a desire for opportunities to connect with other mothers in similar situations, either through online forums or in-person events. This suggests that building a sense of community and providing networking opportunities could enhance the educational experience for mothers.
The qualitative findings underscore the importance of flexibility and support in educational programs for mothers with young children. The preference for online learning formats reflects the need to balance educational pursuits with childcare responsibilities. However, the value placed on in-person interaction highlights the necessity of blended learning approaches that combine online and in-person elements.
These overall findings of the qualitative study are consistent with prior studies that highlight the need for flexibility and support in educational programs for adult learners, particularly those with caregiving responsibilities. For instance, previous research (Russel, 2015; Hajeer, 2024) has shown that online learning is highly valued by adult learners for its flexibility, while the need for practical, job-related skills aligns with findings from studies on vocational education. The emphasis on childcare support and financial considerations also resonates with existing literature on the barriers faced by mothers in pursuing education.

4.2 Quantitative Study

The quantitative data analysis revealed several significant correlations and relationships between variables, shedding light on the preferences and needs of mothers with young children regarding educational programs.
4.2.1 Correlation Analysis
The current subsection report on the negative and positive correlations among the variables.
– Preference for Online Learning and Specific Formats:
A strong preference for exclusively online courses (r = -0.519, p < .001) was found to be correlated with a preference for live online lectures (r = 0.559, p < .001) and weekend classes (r = 0.560, p < .001), while there was a strong aversion to entirely in-person (r = -0.519, p < .001) and pre-recorded formats (r = -0.644, p < .001). This suggests that mothers who prefer online learning value real-time interaction and flexibility in scheduling.
– Preference for Live Online and In-Person Learning:
Those who liked live online lectures generally also favored in-person lectures (r = 0.617, p < .001) and the MOOC format (r = 0.652, p < .001), indicating a preference for either live or flexible learning options. This finding suggests that mothers value both interaction and the ability to learn at their own pace. Participants who preferred in-person lectures also showed a preference for MOOCs (r = 0.627, p < .001), further emphasizing the appeal of flexible learning options.
– Number of Children and Live Online Lectures:
Participants with more children were less inclined towards live online lectures (r = -0.329, p = 0.018), possibly due to time constraints or childcare challenges. This highlights the need for flexible learning options that can accommodate the demands of parenting multiple children.
– Valuing Knowledge and Formal Qualifications:
Those who valued knowledge for its own sake also tended to value formal qualifications like diplomas (r = 0.617, p < .001). This suggests that mothers who prioritize learning are also interested in obtaining recognized credentials to enhance their career prospects.
– Age and Pursuit of Diplomas:
Older participants were less interested in obtaining a diploma through the course (r = -0.308, p = 0.028), indicating that their motivations for learning might differ from those of younger mothers. This finding suggests that educational programs should cater to the diverse motivations of learners across different age groups.
– Preference for Morning vs. Afternoon Classes:
There was a clear divide in preferences between morning and afternoon classes (r = -0.636, p < .001), with participants expressing strong preferences for one or the other. This highlights the importance of offering courses at various times to accommodate different schedules and preferences. Those who preferred weekend classes were also more likely to be open to the flexible MOOC format (r = 0.507, p < .001) and morning classes (r = 0.499, p < .001).
– Childcare Needs and Preferences:
Mothers who needed childcare generally required it regardless of the learning format (online or in-person) (r = 0.769, p < .001). Those with more children tended to have a greater need for on-site childcare (r = 0.297, p = 0.035). Conversely, those who did not need childcare strongly opposed options that included it (r = -0.523, p < .001 and r = -0.534, p < .001, respectively). This finding emphasizes the importance of offering childcare options to cater to the diverse needs of mothers.
– Financial Assistance and Payment Options:
Participants who needed financial assistance, whether through installment plans (r = -0.646, p < .001) or scholarships, were unlikely to state that they didn’t need help. This highlights the financial barriers that many mothers face and the importance of offering financial support options. There was also a moderate positive correlation between those who preferred financial support based on specific criteria and those who preferred scholarships (r = 0.499, p < .001).
4.2.2 Cross-Tabulation Analysis
The cross-tabulation analysis revealed statistically significant relationships between demographic factors (number of children, education level, location) and various educational preferences.
– Number of Children: The number of children was significantly associated with preferences for blended learning (X2 = 36.367), live online lectures (X2 = 44.375), and in-person lectures (X2 = 17.400). This suggests that mothers with more children may have different learning preferences due to their childcare responsibilities.
– Education Level: Higher education levels were correlated with a preference for in-person lectures (X2 < 0.001, Cramer’s V = 0.477) and a greater interest in scholarships (Cramer’s V = 0.426), while lower education levels were associated with a preference for live online lectures. This finding suggests that educational background can influence learning preferences and financial needs.
– Location: Location was significantly associated with preferences for MOOCs (X2 = 23.387), in-person lectures (X2 = 3.417), and morning classes (X2 = 32.370). This indicates that geographical location can play a role in shaping educational preferences, possibly due to differences in access to resources or cultural factors.

5. Conclusions

This mixed-methods study provides insights into the educational preferences and needs of mothers with young children in Hungary who are considering career transitions. In line with the theoretical frameworks of human capital theory, social learning theory, and career construction theory, the findings highlight the importance of flexible learning formats, such as online courses and blended learning approaches, which allow mothers to balance their studies with childcare responsibilities. This aligns with previous research (Augustine, 2014; Dench & Bellis, 2007) that emphasized the need for flexibility and support in educational programs for adult learners, particularly those with caregiving responsibilities. Additionally, the study highlights the importance of accessible childcare support, practical skills development, and financial assistance in facilitating successful career transitions for this demographic. These findings resonate with existing literature on the barriers faced by mothers in pursuing education, such as the lack of affordable childcare, time constraints, and financial limitations (Augustine, 2014; Dench & Bellis, 2007).
By understanding the diverse needs and preferences of mothers, educational institutions and policymakers can design and implement programs that effectively support their educational and career aspirations. This study contributes to the existing body of knowledge on adult education and career development, particularly for women with caregiving responsibilities. The findings underscore the importance of tailoring educational programs to the specific needs of mothers, including flexible scheduling, online learning options, and childcare support. Additionally, the study emphasizes the need for financial assistance and practical skills training to empower mothers in their career transitions, aligning with previous research on the importance of practical, job-related skills and financial aid in facilitating educational access for mothers (Dench & Bellis, 2007).
The insights gained from this research can inform the development of targeted interventions and policies that address the unique challenges faced by mothers in pursuing education and career advancement, such as the „motherhood penalty” and „role incongruity” (Correll et al., 2007; Eagly & Karau, 2002). By creating a more inclusive and supportive environment that acknowledges and addresses these systemic biases, we can empower women to achieve their full potential in both their personal and professional lives. Future research could explore the long-term impact of educational programs on the career trajectories of mothers with young children in Hungary. Additionally, investigating the role of social support networks and mentoring programs in facilitating successful career transitions could provide valuable insights for future interventions.

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Erna Dóra Zalkodi Graduate Student
Budapest Business University

Dr. Ahmad Hajeer Senior Lecturer
Budapest Business University